اإلتحاد الطالبي نسأل هللا الدعاء والتوفيق لصاحبته

Transcription

1 1 اإلتحاد الطالبي "ما شاء هللا ال قوة إال باهلل" نسأل هللا الدعاء والتوفيق لصاحبته أم محمد اليافعي )زكاة العلم( لجابتر Chapter 1 Part A A- What is traditional belief? Can we test it and improve it? Explain the differences and arguments about these issues? IN THE BEGIN: we write the definition of traditional belief considering these points: 1- Belief has been passed down from one generation to another 2- It s as much as family heirloom might be handed down. 3- Someone has absorbed from others without examining it for him or herself. 4- Many of our beliefs are traditional and include ethical or moral beliefs.( for example :it's wrong to tell a lie). This kind if tradition moral belief called - when the view that tradition is the best source of moral beliefs - as (moral traditionalism) but the opposite of it is the (moral rationalism)which means the view that reason is the best source of moral beliefs; philosophers adopt this position, they argue that we ought to question existing moral beliefs and return only the beliefs that can be rationally defended and explained, and so they hold that it is reason not tradition. Anyway testing traditional moral beliefs is not easy, and improving tradition as a source if moral beliefs are also can be impossible. There are two arguments support this claim. First, the members of a community share the traditional moral beliefs which make everyone guess what kind of behavior to expect from everyone else,it promotes social harmony but questioning the traditional beliefs will make conflict and confusion. Nevertheless, these beliefs can be true or false. Second, traditional moral belief has a long history and personal experience from the different generations, they were been tried and tested by them.this progress reflects experience and wisdom of the centuries and these beliefs are likely to be true. Therefore, it's difficult to test the truth. On another hand, anyone can reject some of these beliefs sometimes, in the light of his own personal experience or reason.he will choose the proper solution or thoughts from his point of view not like others who used to act according to their traditional moral beliefs and that is a big challenge Because he or she ought to explain why his or her own reason or experience should be preferred to the experience of many generations.socrates suggests that in order to find out how to become virtuous, they must decide first what virtue is. He suggests that they should address the question what is courage?" Laches answers Socrates by presenting a specific example of might behavior. He describes how a courageous infantryman might behave. But Socrates wants to turn his attention away from the details of a specific example introduces his definition of quickness in order to demonstrate the kind of answer he wants to identify what all examples of quickness have in common ;both on and off the field of battle,beside what makes these examples of courageous behavior true. Socrates gives Laches and Nicias lesson in philosophy in order to expand their

2 2 thinking, concern with questions of a very general kind and when they deal with practical problems that they encounter they have to know the reflection on general questions of this kind and focusing on the back ground assumptions that they rely on. For instant, the purpose of education and assumptions about what courage is, to do this, is to do philosophy. Beside in any particular situation true opinion and Knowledge will be equally reliable as guides to action. When you figure it out what makes opinion true and understand it why it's true like the case if statues of Daedalus, opinions tend to stray or if I tell you the argument is valid, you ought to understand why it's valid. The knowledge will become your own, it will stay with you and nobody can persuade you otherwise. Moreover, Socrates suggests that knowledge doesn't require understanding applies to all kinds of knowledge. For example the way to Larisa needs understanding the route is it good or not by testing it and having experience.it doesn't need to figure why the rout is good or not. This kind of process like philosophy and mathematics where it is reasonable to know things throw reason and reflection. He wishes that wisdom can be shared by sitting next to someone like two glasses when the water flowed from one that was full to one that was empty. The Knowledge that Socrates appeal is not by portraying others words ; such as Nicias (when he portrays Socrates words and says that courage is the knowledge about what is evil and what is good)or soaking up knowledge from books or others testimonies but by knowing something involves experiencing the true by yourself or working through an argument to understand why the certain philosophical claim is true Part B B-how do Laches Nicias and Socrates define courage? Lysimachus and Melesia or ( two general statesmen ) Require advice from ( Laches and Nicias) "both generals in the Athenians army "on whether or not they should have trained their sons to fight in armor or in martial arts training in order to earn courage and self-discipline.but both Laches and Nicias they don't agree, therefore, Laches calls Socrates for council. As we know, Socrates has his way if answering questions, he never gives his answers directly.he proceeds by asking other people what they think,then he asks them more series further questions without putting his forward opinions,which makes others at the ends in sometimes baffled or extremely annoyed. When they ask him how they can educate their sons to get courage and virtue. They ask about specific practical problem involving specific group if people and that draw attention to philosophical questions and relay on background assumptions. For example what is the courage? What is the purpose of education? You have to take step back and focus on these assumptions to reflect on them and that what Socrates has done.so he asks them what courage is. Laches defines courage in the first time in too particular way and as a traditional conception. He says that courage is associated with qualities required if citizen soldiers fighting to defend their city as hoplites but Socrates asks him to move beyond the traditional conception of courage. In the second time he defines courage in general. He says that courage is endurance and Socrates agree with him, next he begins to exam him by asking him another question.he asks Laches series questions until he figures that there is a kind of endurance -foolish endurance- which doesn't amount with courage because courage is admirable thing but foolish endurance is not, so foolish endurance is not kind of courage. After that, he asks Neicias the same question what is the definition of courage, he says that is knowledge what is fearful and encouraging then he says that

3 effective knowledge is knowing what will be evil and what will be good in future.socrates says that is no difference between this kind of knowledge in the past, mean time or future. Neicias accepts his thought and revised his definition of courage as knowledge of what is evil and what is good. And this knowledge is the whole virtue, but they already agree that courage is just a part of virtue.so courage is not the same thing as knowledge of evil or good. He talks to Meno in another argument about knowledge and true opinion and explains how can true opinion turn into knowledge by figuring out what makes them true by knowing their involves and understanding why it's true. For example the road of Larisa When have two persons one if them had tested the road and the other one has true and correct opinion Both of them can be right. But knowledge is more value than true opinion in the long run because it stays with us. Finally Socrates says that the all kind of knowledge doesn't require whole understanding but requires understanding more sense not just absorb it from others without thinking and by parroting others words. The right method of knowing something is reading books and experiencing the truth of it by yourself or working throw arguments to understand why philosophical claims are true or not and that what Plato is trying to explain. Doing philosophy is not just finding what experts find out or think but it requires reflection and understanding Chapter2 Part A How does tradition provoke dissent? Discuss how poets dissent from tradition with examples? Different kind of art works from our tradition have been innovation by the friction between old and new beside many artists and poets had imitated others works in like the poets who do dissent to innovate the interest and to create life in their poems. For example William Blake", "John Donne" and "Miroslav Holub " all these poets had written about the fly but in a dissent using different styles ( including rhyme schemes and verse firms) in their writings. First, poets don't dissent automatically from tradition. New poems are often generated out of dialogue with older poems in process called " imitation". Imitation is a process whereby a poet imitates the work of someone else that he or she admires.for example, the way that rock musicians begin by playing different kind of songs before writing their own material.they innovate new style of music and influences others, because there is no art form can exist solely to repeat or recycle traditional formulae. There must be some innovation and friction between the old and new in order to stimulate interest and to keep the form new. The Irish poet Lois Mac Neice" says that" A poem to be recognizable, must be traditional, but to be worth recognizing must to be something new. For instance, "the Flay" by William Blake, "The Flea" by John Donne and "The Fly" by Czech poet "Miroslav Holub" all these poems are talking about the fly but in a dissent and different way which makes each one of them a special poem. Second, let us begin with "The Fly by William Blake, his poem is made up of a short lines so his rhymes are unavoidable especially at the end of lines and each stanza" is composed of lines with alternate rhymes. Stanza is an Italian word means stopping land and room, also it is the technical word of a grouping of lines of verse. The poetic rooms in "The Fly" are small perhaps mimicking the size of the little fly. He uses the simplest and oldest style of rhyming patterns to evoke simplicity of nursery rhymes because his poem concerned with childhood experience. He uses images and personification which is a metaphor establishes connection between things and people like when he says ( my thoughtless hand) and ( blind hand).he gives vivid sense of an ordinary action when he describes the action of brushing a fly away in a poetic imagery. Also he uses "anthropomorphism 3

4 4 "it's when you describe something inhuman and give it a human behavior.anthropomorphic is a practice device derived from Ancient Greece. We can find many stories as examples of anthropomorphically writings in "Aesop's Fables ".Moreover, he uses simile when he compare the fly with the man using the words (as and like). All these techniques and devices he uses is to bear in mind the share frailty or fragility of human weakness and fly.yet joyful acceptance.blake elaborates analogy between the man and the beast or the fragility of human and other creatures and in the same time joyful of satisfaction in the limitations of existence. Third, The Flea" by John Donne is differs than Blake s. He was contemporary of Christopher Marlowe so his language in the poem is slightly unusual at first. The form and syntax of this poem are much knottier and more involved.each stanza ends with a rhyming triplet to stress the reader or listener what he's driving at. He metaphor when describes the bed as a marriage and the marriage as temple..he uses the flea as an elaborate flexible metaphor to persuade a female to sleep with him in a dubious analogy between being bitten by a fleas and having sex. He claims that she will only lose as much honor as they each lost life when she killed the flea which contained their mingled bloods. Donne uses the flea as a conceit ;that is, a deliberately far-fetched and ingenious comparison to convey the amalgam of intellectual with the sensuous.his way of using conceit was fashionable during his lifetime.he was the first English poets to deploy comparisons of this kind and begin a tradition of extravagant politic conceits. His poem is about persuading a female to sleep with hem although they are in a society held strict views about sex outside marriage. He doesn't want to be a fly all what he wants is to seduce a woman and reject the Religious and social objections about having sex outside marriage. Fourth." The Fly" is a modern poem in form and content by Czech poet "Miroslav Holub, his poem is totally different from the last two poems but we have to bear in mind that his poem wasn't first written in English. He was Czech and immunologist, whose poetry was partly censored by prosoviet regime which ruled his country until the Velvet Revolution in The form of the poem and the use Holub makes his fly. He uses the language of objective description and describes the horrible scenes of the war by drawing graphics like the camera when it registering the violent events. His poem lacks any rhyme scheme or recurring pattern to the verse. The lines have different lengths, it seems that there aren't any traditional design which Holub is following.he uses free verse and manipulates line ending by butting breaks in his lines to emphasize dramatic moments in the syntax like watching, she mated. He describes the evocation of the battle and provides us graphics of the horrifying account of the realities of Crecy battle like (shouts, gasps a few arms and legs). He also talks about the insect behavior in a scientific description like when he talks about her color" the blue tongue and how does she feed herself and her cycle in life. Also he shows dissent in his poet from traditional ways of writing about warfare by describing the effects of the pointless battle without talking about victory, and focusing on the fragility of the human and animal life.beside we can see vestiges of anthropomorphic thinking when he talks about the fly Part B الشعر جزء ثاني How do the poems by Lawrence such snake, Lizard, bats, tortoise and lion are presented? And what attitude does he show? We know that D.H Lawrence likes animals and prefers them more than the humans.for example there are some poems about animals like lion, snake, pats, tortoise and lizard" are written by him. He elaborates his fascinating with the animal world and disgusts and curses the human education and culture. These poems are written in free verse with no rhymes. Like Holub, he manipulates the ending lines in order to emphasize. He uses little of anthropomorphic thinking, notebook repetition.

5 5 In fact he is a repetitious writer: his free verse is shaped by the use of strategic repetitions in order to dramatize his view point, or to persuade us of something throw the force of verbal resonance. First, note the contrast between the repeating words like " long long slim cat and yellow like lioness" and the blandness word " Dead". He uses devices, simile and repetitious description words to registers the pathos of the animals death. He deploys both imagery and repetition with the ugly fact of the lion's lifelessness. His sentiments are sociopathic and hyperbolic which means deliberately exaggerated. For example, in Mountain Lion" he claims sparing million or two of humans is a bad thing could happen but losing a wild yellow cat is worse. Second, he seems to be an excitable writer. In each poem the protagonist shows to be intrigued, curious, disgusting or fascinated by the creature he encounters. Also he uses a little kind of anthropomorphic thinking and often dresses the creatures " you know what is to be born a lone baby tortoise!" The question about the tortoise reflects his wonder about these small creatures and how animals differ from people who look at them. His words imply that these tortoises don't wonder at all. Third, He gets stuck on the same terns of words and images; new lines are chiseled out of phrases which have themselves just been minted.he uses the same technique with the pats.he captures the emotions of disgusting by elaborating the simile of bats sleeping" like an old rag" he transfers the disgust from the description of the bats sleeping habits to "disgusting old rags". He uses his free verse to dramatize his view point of disgusting. Fourth, when we read the poems about animals we will understand his characteristics and attitudes which explain his difficult and disturbing ideas. In the "snake" he curses the human culture and education because he is fascinated by the snake and doesn't want to kill the her " black snakes are innocent". He dramatizes the conflicted feelings the snake arouses in him showing his dissent and rejecting the voice of human education. Fifth, in the "Lizard" Lawrence asserts the superiority of lizards to men. He says " if men were as much men as lizard are,they would be worth looking at".the poems reflect his thoughts and feelings. He is against the modern civilization which abstracted people from their innermost desire. For Some people he is like a prophet of liberation from Victorian repression, but for others he is the man who seeks to break many of the taboos Part A الجزء الثالث المسيحية Discuss the definition of "religion " and talk about the dominant expression of western Christianity up to the sixteenth century and what did Roger Martyn write about it? Before we start talking about the tradition and dissent in English Christianity, let's first define what religion is, according to Helen Waterhouse religion is a "system of practices, institutions and beliefs that provides meaning to life and death". You can be a religious when you follow your beliefs and activities and lifestyle issue, such as abstinence from certain foods or drinks like alcohol,these practices and beliefs come from your sense of religious identity. So, when historical reformation started in Europe in the era between fifteen and seventeen centuries, that period was rich of intense debates and conflict about the meaning of "religious,or to be more specifically " Christian". The mainstream Christianity teaches that God exists in three forms or persons; the father who created the world, the son Jesus who redeemed humankind and the Holy Spirit, the continuing super nature

6 6 power in the life of the church. The Christian convictions are beliefs relating to Jesus of Nazareth and according to the core teaching of Christianity which says That the humankind is inherently sinful, signifying estrangement from God as well as moral wrongdoing, Jesus is both fully divide and fully human, he is the sinless son of God and the essential means of reconciliation between God and humankind".following his death on the cross, he is still living in heaven because of the subsequent miraculous resurrection that overcame the power of sin and death. His teachings are recorded in the New Testament have unique spiritual and moral authority.after Jesus life on earth, God sent the Holy Spirit to initiate empower the church in its continuing to these central truths.all who have true faith in him, have the prospect of forgiveness of sins in this world and eternal life in the world to come. Of course, Many different questions of interpretation have divided Christians across the centuries. Questions like: what does it really mean that Jesus is both fully divide and fully human? What do people actually have to do to secure the forgiveness and enteral life promised to them throw Jesus?Do they need help from supernatural beings like (saints or angels) or from the rituals of the church, or it is by keeping the committing and trusting in God and that may be enough to attain salvation, is there still hope of changing one's destiny even after death or is it one's eternal fate irrevocably settled in this life? How do they gain true knowledge of Jesus's teachings - throw the Bible or throw the church which claims the ongoing divine guidance of the Holy Spirit? In worship, is it better to follow the tradition and maintaining the rituals or should Christian practice be reshaped contexts? We should bear in mind that western Christianity had a domination expressions up to the sixteenth century. It emphasizes on the importance of tradition and the authority of the church.the observance of particular rituals and the reception of sacraments that were managed by the church were as vital for personal salvation. Saints had the honor because they were as intermediaries with God, who would help the faithful prayers and make miracles of healing. After death and passing into purgatory there is a place of trail and cleansing, and however it was thought that their sufferings there could be reduced by the prayers of the living granted by the church as a reward for his acts. Roger Martyn has a conception of these beliefs and religious world and wrote about them. For example, when you read his books, you will find that reverence for material helped him to understand Christian teaching and which were hallowed by long association and presence in the church. Moreover, the participation in rituals and music highlighting the perceived presence of God in the consecrated bread and wine. And last, the observance of annual cycle on numerous holidays and perception that religion was the central to the life of a village community as a whole. The religious world evoked by Martyn has been analyzed by Eamon Duffy. Duffy uses the term "traditional " rather than Catholic before the Reformation Christianity because " Catholicism" and " Protestantism" were initially defined by the conflicts of the sixteenth century. He emphasizes particularly the richness of the liturgical calendar that out the cycle of the year to worship of the mass and be actual body of Christ. He also portrays the community life in parish worship or in the brotherhood of the trade guilds, and the spiritual communities affirmed by the veneration is saints and by prayers for the death.the last point is private devotions reinforced the communal ethos of tradition religion by being focused on artifacts used in public worship while church buildings provided location for collective observance and visual inspiration for the piety of individuals. On the other hand,protestantism was against the Catholicism. Protestantism stressed that salvation depended primarily on personal faith rather than participation in the rituals of the church and that ultimate authority lay in the original text of the Bible

7 7 rather than in church traditions. also thy rejected the concept if purgatory they said that those who had lived with true faith in Christ during their lives, went straight to heaven after death and those who hadn't were condemned to hell. Hence there wasn't purpose in the prayers for the dead it followed, even the church buildings had to be much plainer and all the colorful rituals and images were seen as a distraction from essential spiritual realities and had to be suppressed Part B المسيحية الجزء الثاني Discuss the English tradition and Religious dissent? How do you think Protestant church would have differed from a catholic one, during the reformation by 1571? Talk about successive phased of religious change during seventeenth and nineteenth centuries? The issue begun when king Henry VIII had a personal and dynastic conflict with the papacy. The pop refused to annul his first marriage and prevented him from marrying another woman and even denied him the opportunity from a fathering a male hire.although the king and Parliament renounced the authority of the Pope in 1533 and then he dissolved the monasteries during his lifetime, the England church continued to be essentially traditional in doctrine and religious practice especially after Henry's death in 1547.which opened the way to more radical religious change, led by the people who ruled in the name of his son, the boy king Edward VI. The Protestant influence did grow, notably through the work of the archbishop Thomas Granmer from 1533.Granmer complied a new Protestant order of service and determined efforts were made to stamp out Catholic practices in When Edward VI died, his half- sister MaryI established control and sought to impose Catholicism. She burnt and exiled everyone who refused her order including Granmer. The people welcomed returning to the older religious traditions or at least accepted. When Mary died, she was succeeded by Elizabeth I, the child of Henry VIII, she was a convinced Protestant but also a clever politician who wanted religion as far as possible to unite rather than divide her subjects. But during the ensuing decades the church was attacked from both sides; Catholic minority who sought to depose Elizabeth to restore the " old religion", and by radical Protestants. The meanings of tradition and dissent changed in this rapid sequence of events. At the outset Catholicism would be as characterized as a "traditional " religion, and Protestantism as a dissent", but Edward VI tried to eliminate former "tradition" and turn former " dissent" into standard belief and practice. Finally, under Elizabeth, the dominant Church of England begun to acquire something of the aura of tradition.edmund Grindal the energetic reformer has had written injunctions to church wardens to make the Protestant agenda fully explicit.for example, images and roods were to be removed and destroyed. The books listed set up in some convenient place, all the physical tools of catholic worship were to be removed and replaced with a board displaying the Ten Commandments and decent table for celebration of Holy Communion. Clergy were no longer to wear colorful vestments and rituals were replaced by restrained non-visual worship and the Christian teaching was now to be through the study of the biblical text and preaching. He found it necessary to issue these injunctions because After Elizabeth had already been on the throne for more than a decade, Catholic practices were still much apparent as a parish level and transition to Protestantism was slow. The reformation as continuing well into seventeenth century, it is also seems that Grindal had a sharp sense of the Catholic objects and practices, he wanted to root out and of the Protestant ones he wanted to encourage. But many contemporary laypeople and parish were combining aspects of both in their religious practice. We have to bear in mind two important points: first, that it is necessary to distinguish between the ideas and convictions of a religious leaders, and the actual experience and beliefs of their nominal followers.leaders may be

8 upholders of tradition faced by rank and file dissent, but Grindal's case reminds us that the leaders may well themselves be the dissenters, challenging entrenched tradition. The Second point is the distinction between richly ritualistic and visual Catholic religious practice like Hindu on one hand, and the austere Protestant practice like Islam on another.hindu temples are normally filled with images and colorful rituals like Catholic,but in Islam the mosque is a simple place to worship where the images are excluded just like principle of church in Protestant. In a religion something that appears to be disruptive and innovatory to one generation can be accepted by their children and it can be as a natural order of things or something hallowed as a tradition by later generations. The religious dissent during the seventeen century has four phases: Let us start talking about the recovering tradition. It was during the reign of Charles I the leaders of the church especially William Laud the archbishop who tried to restore and elaborate Catholic tradition of worship and what was it called " the beauty of holiness" and sought to replace altars and these policies were actively supported by the king but the political antagonists and public hostility were against his rule and that lead to civil war in 1640s. After the parliament won the civil war and executed the King Charles, the outcome was a recasting of church in a much more Protestant direction with abolition of bishops, banning if the prayer book and a variety of more radical Protestants groups flourished in 1640s and 1650s which had leaded after that to reject formal church structures and emphasize the individuals personal experience of God. When Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660, the bishops were reinstated and 2000 clergy refused to accept the settlement after a modified version of the Book of Common Prayer was reimposed beside they were rejected by their parishes. For some years religious groups and, Baptists and others who refused to conform the Church of England counted to be persecuted and came to be known as Dissenters. When Charles II died in 1685, he was succeeded by his brother James II who was a Roman Catholic but a revolution started gains because of his hostility, so he was replaced by his Protestant daughter MaryII and her husband William III.As result of these political events, the Protestant identity of the Church of England was reaffirmed. In general, the eighteenth century saw marked reduction in the intensity of religious conflicts and challenges to dominate order in the Church of England. In nineteen century the dissent was expanding and renewing tradition and many social and political changes in England. For example, the population was growing very rapidly from 8 million to 12million in 1810s. Moreover, people were becoming increasingly concentrated in towns.there was also political unrest aftermath of the French Revolution. Also, there were the pressures of prolonged war with France. But the most obvious innovation was the massive expansion of organized religious Dissent. Whereas in the eighteenth century the church of England continued to be numerically dominant, in the first half of nineteenth century its supremacy was steadily eroded. The Oxford movement sought to recover the Catholic side emphasizing the traditions and authority side of the church